Brought Back from Cancellation, Artemis' Robotic Rover Has Found a New Ride to the Lunar Surface...

Blue Origin

NASA Selects Blue Origin to Deliver VIPER Rover to Moon’s South Pole (News Release)

As part of the agency’s Artemis campaign, NASA has awarded Blue Origin of Kent, Washington, a CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) task order with an option to deliver a rover to the Moon’s South Pole region. NASA’s VIPER (Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover) will search for volatile resources, such as ice, on the lunar surface and collect science data to support future exploration at the Moon and Mars.

“NASA is leading the world in exploring more of the Moon than ever before, and this delivery is just one of many ways we’re leveraging U.S. industry to support a long-term American presence on the lunar surface,” said acting NASA Administrator Sean Duffy. “Our rover will explore the extreme environment of the lunar South Pole, traveling to small, permanently shadowed regions to help inform future landing sites for our astronauts and better understand the Moon’s environment – important insights for sustaining humans over longer missions, as America leads our future in space.”

The CLPS task order has a total potential value of $190 million. This is the second CLPS lunar delivery awarded to Blue Origin. Their first delivery – using their Blue Moon Mark 1 (MK1) robotic lander – is targeted for launch later this year to deliver NASA’s Stereo Cameras for Lunar-Plume Surface Studies and Laser Retroreflective Array payloads to the Moon’s South Pole region.

With this new award, Blue Origin will deliver VIPER to the lunar surface in late 2027, using a second Blue Moon MK1 lander, which is in production. NASA previously canceled the VIPER project and has since explored alternative approaches to achieve the agency’s goals of mapping potential off-planet resources, like water.

“NASA is committed to studying and exploring the Moon, including learning more about water on the lunar surface, to help determine how we can harness local resources for future human exploration,” said Nicky Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate, NASA Headquarters in Washington. “We’ve been looking for creative, cost-effective approaches to accomplish these exploration goals. This private sector-developed landing capability enables this delivery and focuses our investments accordingly – supporting American leadership in space and ensuring our long-term exploration is robust and affordable.”

The task order, called CS-7, has an award base to design the payload-specific accommodations and to demonstrate how Blue Origin’s flight design will off-load the rover to the lunar surface. There is an option on the contract to deliver and safely deploy the rover to the Moon’s surface. NASA will make the decision to exercise that option after the execution and review of the base task and of Blue Origin’s first flight of the Blue Moon MK1 lander.

This unique approach will reduce the agency’s cost and technical risk. The rover has a targeted science window for its 100-day mission that requires a landing by late 2027.

Blue Origin is responsible for the complete landing mission architecture and will conduct design, analysis and testing of a large lunar lander capable of safely delivering the lunar volatiles science rover to the Moon. Blue Origin will also handle end-to-end payload integration, planning and support, and post-landing payload deployment activities. NASA will conduct rover operations and science planning.

“The search for lunar volatiles plays a key role in NASA’s exploration of the Moon, with important implications for both science and human missions under Artemis,” said Joel Kearns, deputy associate administrator for exploration, Science Mission Directorate, NASA Headquarters. “This delivery could show us where ice is most likely to be found and easiest to access, as a future resource for humans. And by studying these sources of lunar water, we also gain valuable insight into the distribution and origin of volatiles across the Solar System, helping us better understand the processes that have shaped our space environment and how our inner Solar System has evolved.”

Through CLPS, American companies continue to demonstrate leadership in commercial space advancing capabilities and accomplishing NASA’s goal for a commercial lunar economy. NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley led the VIPER rover development and will lead its science investigations, and NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston provided rover engineering development for Ames.

Source: NASA.Gov

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NASA

Japan's Venus Mission Has Ended...

JAXA

Venus Climate Orbiter Akatsuki Operation Completed (News Release)

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) conducted the termination procedure for the Venus Climate Orbiter Akatsuki (PLANET-C) starting at 9:00 AM on September 18, 2025 (JST), thereby ending the probe's operations.

Akatsuki was launched from the Tanegashima Space Center on May 21, 2010, aboard the H-IIA Launch Vehicle No. 17. The spacecraft successfully entered Venus orbit in December 2015, becoming Japan's first planetary orbiter beyond Earth. Since then, Akatsuki continuously observed Venus's atmosphere for more than eight years.

The mission’s scientific achievements focussed on planetary meteorology and included the discovery of the largest mountain wave (stationary gravity waves) in the Solar System, the elucidation of the mechanism that maintained high-speed atmospheric circulation (super-rotation) around Venus, and the application of data assimilation techniques (popular in Earth's meteorological research) to Venus for the first time.

Communication with Akatsuki was lost during operations near the end of April 2024, triggered by an incident in a control mode of lower-precision attitude maintenance for a prolonged period. Although recovery operations were conducted to restore communication, there has been no luck so far. Considering the fact that the spacecraft has aged, well exceeding its designed lifetime, and was already in the late-stage operation phase, it has been decided to terminate operations.

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to all of the organizations and individuals who have cooperated and supported the development and operation of Akatsuki.

Source: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

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JAXA / ISAS / Akatsuki Project Team

Send Your Name to the Moon Early Next Year!

NASA

Launch Your Name Around Moon in 2026 on NASA’s Artemis II Mission (News Release - September 9)

NASA is inviting the public to join the agency’s Artemis II test flight as four astronauts venture around the Moon and back to test systems and hardware needed for deep space exploration. As part of the agency’s “Send Your Name with Artemis II” effort, anyone can claim their spot by signing up before January 21.

Participants will launch their name aboard the Orion spacecraft and SLS (Space Launch System) rocket alongside NASA astronauts Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, Christina Koch and CSA (Canadian Space Agency) astronaut Jeremy Hansen.

“Artemis II is a key test flight in our effort to return humans to the Moon’s surface and build toward future missions to Mars, and it’s also an opportunity to inspire people across the globe and to give them an opportunity to follow along as we lead the way in human exploration deeper into space,” said Lori Glaze, acting associate administrator, Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington.

The collected names will be put on an SD card loaded aboard Orion before launch. In return, participants can download a boarding pass with their name on it as a collectable.

To add your name and receive an English-language boarding pass, visit:

https://go.nasa.gov/artemisnames
To add your name and receive a Spanish-language boarding pass, visit:

https://go.nasa.gov/TuNombreArtemis
As part of a Golden Age of innovation and exploration, the approximately 10-day Artemis II test flight, launching no later than April 2026, is the first crewed flight under NASA’s Artemis campaign. It is another step towards new U.S.-crewed missions on the Moon’s surface that will help the agency prepare to send the first astronauts – Americans – to Mars.

Source: NASA.Gov

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Brandon Hancock


NASA

A Second Raider Takes Flight on Patriot Day...

USAF

US Air Force Announces Arrival of Second B-21 Test Aircraft at Edwards AFB (Press Release)

ARLINGTON, Va. (AFNS) -- The Department of the Air Force has announced the arrival of the second B-21 Raider flight test aircraft, September 11, at Edwards Air Force Base, California, significantly enhancing the Air Force’s capacity to conduct comprehensive testing and sustainment training.

The addition of the second aircraft expands the Air Force’s testing capabilities beyond initial flight performance checks, enabling progression into critical mission systems and weapon integration testing phases. This advancement marks a significant step towards operational readiness of the nation’s sixth-generation stealth bomber.

“With the arrival of the second B-21 Raider, our flight test campaign gains substantial momentum,” said Secretary of the Air Force Troy Meink. “We can now expedite critical evaluations of mission systems and weapons capabilities, directly supporting the strategic deterrence and combat effectiveness envisioned for this aircraft.

The presence of multiple test aircraft at Edwards AFB also provides Air Force maintainers invaluable hands-on experience in managing simultaneous aircraft sustainment operations, testing the effectiveness of maintenance tools, technical data and the logistical processes that will support future operational squadrons.

“The addition of a second B-21 to the flight test program accelerates the path to fielding,” said Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. David Allvin. “By having more assets in the test environment, we bring this capability to our warfighters faster, demonstrating the urgency with which we’re tackling modernization.”

Concurrent with the expanded flight-testing effort, fiscal year 2026 will see the launch of extensive military construction projects at all three designated B-21 main operating bases. Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, the first base set to receive operational B-21 aircraft, is already progressing rapidly on numerous infrastructure projects to ensure readiness when the aircraft arrive.

“The B-21 Raider program represents a cornerstone of our strategic nuclear modernization,” Allvin added. “The concurrent efforts in testing, sustainment preparation and infrastructure investments clearly illustrate our commitment to providing unmatched capabilities to deter and defeat threats well into the future.”

The B-21 Raider is a stealth strategic bomber designed to deliver both conventional and nuclear payloads, developed in partnership with Northrop Grumman under the oversight of the Air Force Rapid Capabilities Office. The program continues to execute its flight testing and ground testing campaigns as well as low-rate initial production.

Source: United States Air Force

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USAF

The Search for Ancient Life on the Red Planet Has Made a Big Breakthrough...

NASA / JPL - Caltech / MSSS

NASA Says Mars Rover Discovered Potential Biosignature Last Year (News Release)

A sample collected by NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover from an ancient dry riverbed in Jezero Crater could preserve evidence of ancient microbial life. Taken from a rock named “Cheyava Falls” last year, the sample, called “Sapphire Canyon,” contains potential biosignatures, according to a paper published Wednesday in the journal Nature.

A potential biosignature is a substance or structure that might have a biological origin but requires more data or further study before a conclusion can be reached about the absence or presence of life.

Perseverance came upon Cheyava Falls in July 2024 while exploring the “Bright Angel” formation, a set of rocky outcrops on the northern and southern edges of Neretva Vallis, an ancient river valley measuring a quarter-mile (400 meters) wide that was carved by water rushing into Jezero Crater long ago.

“This finding is the direct result of NASA’s effort to strategically plan, develop and execute a mission able to deliver exactly this type of science — the identification of a potential biosignature on Mars,” said Nicky Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. “With the publication of this peer-reviewed result, NASA makes this data available to the wider science community for further study to confirm or refute its biological potential.”

The rover’s science instruments found that the formation’s sedimentary rocks are composed of clay and silt, which, on Earth, are excellent preservers of past microbial life. They are also rich in organic carbon, sulfur, oxidized iron (rust) and phosphorous.

“The combination of chemical compounds we found in the Bright Angel formation could have been a rich source of energy for microbial metabolisms,” said Perseverance scientist Joel Hurowitz of Stony Brook University, New York and lead author of the paper. “But just because we saw all these compelling chemical signatures in the data didn’t mean we had a potential biosignature. We needed to analyze what that data could mean.”

First to collect data on this rock were Perseverance’s PIXL (Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry) and SHERLOC (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman & Luminescence for Organics & Chemicals) instruments. While investigating Cheyava Falls, an arrowhead-shaped rock measuring 3.2 feet by 2 feet (1 meter by 0.6 meters), they found what appeared to be colorful spots. The spots on the rock could have been left behind by microbial life if it had used the raw ingredients, the organic carbon, sulfur and phosphorus, in the rock as an energy source.

In higher-resolution images, the instruments found a distinct pattern of minerals arranged into reaction fronts (points of contact where chemical and physical reactions occur) that the team called leopard spots. The spots carried the signature of two iron-rich minerals: vivianite (hydrated iron phosphate) and greigite (iron sulfide). Vivianite is frequently found on Earth in sediments, peat bogs and around decaying organic matter.

Similarly, certain forms of microbial life on Earth can produce greigite.

The combination of these minerals, which appear to have formed by electron-transfer reactions between the sediment and organic matter, is a potential fingerprint for microbial life, which would use these reactions to produce energy for growth. The minerals can also be generated abiotically, or without the presence of life. Hence, there are ways to produce them without biological reactions, including sustained high temperatures, acidic conditions and binding by organic compounds.

However, the rocks at Bright Angel do not show evidence that they experienced high temperatures or acidic conditions, and it is unknown whether the organic compounds present would’ve been capable of catalyzing the reaction at low temperatures.

The discovery was particularly surprising because it involves some of the youngest sedimentary rocks the mission has investigated. An earlier hypothesis assumed signs of ancient life would be confined to older rock formations. This finding suggests that Mars could have been habitable for a longer period or later in the planet’s history than previously thought, and that older rocks might also hold signs of life that are simply harder to detect.

“Astrobiological claims, particularly those related to the potential discovery of past extraterrestrial life, require extraordinary evidence,” said Katie Stack Morgan, Perseverance’s project scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. “Getting such a significant finding as a potential biosignature on Mars into a peer-reviewed publication is a crucial step in the scientific process because it ensures the rigor, validity and significance of our results. And while abiotic explanations for what we see at Bright Angel are less likely given the paper’s findings, we cannot rule them out.”

The scientific community uses tools and frameworks like the CoLD scale and Standards of Evidence to assess whether data related to the search for life actually answers the question, "Are we alone?" Such tools help improve understanding of how much confidence to place in data suggesting a possible signal of life found outside our own planet.

Sapphire Canyon is one of 27 rock cores the rover has collected since landing at Jezero Crater in February 2021. Among the suite of science instruments is a weather station that provides environmental information for future human missions, as well as swatches of spacesuit material so that NASA can study how it fares on Mars.

Managed for NASA by Caltech, NASA JPL built and manages operations of the Perseverance rover on behalf of the agency’s Science Mission Directorate as part of NASA’s Mars Exploration Program portfolio.

Source: NASA.Gov

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The Latest Update on America's Next Saturn-bound Robotic Explorer...

NASA / Johns Hopkins APL / Steve Gribben

NASA’s Dragonfly Soaring Through Key Development, Test Activities (News Release - September 8)

NASA’s Dragonfly mission has cleared several key design, development and testing milestones, and remains on track towards launch in July 2028.

Dragonfly, a car-sized, nuclear-powered rotorcraft being designed and built for NASA at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) in Laurel, Maryland, will explore Saturn’s moon Titan. Following launch and a six-year journey to Titan, the Dragonfly rotorcraft will spend over three years investigating multiple landing sites across the moon’s diverse surface. Flying a comprehensive science package, Dragonfly seeks to understand Titan habitability and the building blocks of life as we know it.

Hardware is being built and software developed, tests are being completed and analyses verified as the team progresses through its development schedule.

“Dragonfly has moved far beyond a concept on a computer screen – the components of the rotorcraft lander are being built as scientists and engineers transform this bold exploration idea into reality,” said Elizabeth “Zibi” Turtle, Dragonfly principal investigator from APL. “From the cleanrooms to the wind tunnels, we’re performing critical tests that are informing our next steps of development and demonstrating how Dragonfly will perform on and above Titan’s surface.”

Recent tests have included aerodynamic analyses of Dragonfly’s rotors and durability trials of the foam coating that will insulate the rotorcraft from Titan’s frigid temperatures. The science payload is also coming together, with instrument components delivered and set up for additional testing. Flight systems are also being evaluated and the flight radio has been delivered and tested.


NASA

Riding the Wind

APL and NASA engineers are wrapping up a monthlong campaign to confirm the performance of Dragonfly’s rotors in Titan-like conditions at NASA Langley Research Center’s Transonic Dynamics Tunnel in Virginia.

Bathing the sensor-laden model in a flow of heavy gas that simulates Titan’s thick atmosphere, the testing team has been gathering data on the rotor system’s aeromechanical performance – looking at factors like stress loads on the rotor arms, and effects of vibration on the rotor blades and lander body – information that will eventually feed into Dragonfly’s flight plans and navigation software.


NASA

Mass Spectrometer on the Move

Scientists and engineers at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, have completed a critical part of the Dragonfly Mass Spectrometer (DraMS), which will analyze chemical components and processes on Titan, including potentially biologically-relevant compounds. The Ion Trap Mass Spectrometer, effectively the “heart” of the DraMS package, has cleared its acceptance review and is being prepared for space-environment tests and integration with other DraMS components.


Johns Hopkins APL / Justin Artis

Keeping Dragonfly Warm

APL engineers have completed structural and thermal testing of the foam insulation for the Dragonfly lander, verifying that the insulation will maintain its shape and protect the lander on Titan, where ambient temperatures get to approximately -300°F (or about -185°C). The lander body will be covered in a 3-inch-thick (7.6-centimeter thick) layer of Solimide-based foam, which is designed to cover science instruments and other exterior elements. The team has tested the insulation in the large Titan-environment chamber at APL, as well as in the wind tunnel at NASA Langley.


Johns Hopkins APL

Long-Distance Communications

Engineers at APL have completed the flight radios that will serve as the communications receiver and transmitter for Dragonfly’s journey to and operations on Titan. The APL-developed Frontier radios are versatile telecommunications devices proven on missions from the Sun to Pluto and beyond. As a software-defined radio — where software is used to customize the radio for specific mission requirements — the Frontier is smaller and needs less power than other deep-space radios, and can send and receive signals in a wide range of frequencies.


Lockheed Martin

Ensuring Safe Entry

Engineers at Lockheed Martin in Denver have passed the first set of major milestones for the flight aeroshell, taking a big step towards making sure the casing that will protect Dragonfly upon its arrival at Titan can withstand the extreme thermal and structural loads of a ballistic atmospheric entry. This includes fabrication, cure and thermal-cycle testing of the aeroshell heat shield and backshell structures, with a static test campaign and thermal protection system installation up next.

Dragonfly will formally begin its integration and test phase in January 2026. The mission is scheduled to launch in July 2028 on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy launch vehicle from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

Source: NASA.Gov

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The Dragonfly mission is flying through milestones! Recent thermal and environmental testing shows how the rotorcraft will survive and navigate Titan’s skies. This bold mission will explore one of our solar system’s most intriguing worlds. https://t.co/ctPlSEzMyS pic.twitter.com/k6Y9DUMstx

— NASA Solar System (@NASASolarSystem) September 8, 2025

On This Day in 2015: Workin' as an Extra on THE BIG BANG THEORY!

So it was 10 years ago today that I went to the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank to work as an extra on my favorite TV sitcom, The Big Bang Theory!

It was surreal to walk into Stage 25 and see the set for the Pasadena apartment where Leonard Hofstadter (Johnny Galecki), Sheldon Cooper (Jim Parsons), Penny (Kaley Cuoco), Howard Wolowitz (Simon Helberg), Raj Koothrappali (Kunal Nayyer), Bernadette Rostenkowski (Melissa Rauch) and Amy Farrah Fowler (Mayim Bialik) gathered to eat Chinese food and talk all things sex, science, Star Trek and Star Wars for several seasons.

In the fourth Season 9 episode shown above (titled "The 2003 Appoximation"), Raj's girlfriend Emily Sweeney (Laura Spencer) and Stuart Bloom (Kevin Sussman) join the gang as Howard and Raj—both standing off-screen—sing Hammer & Whip (Thor and Dr. Jones) in Stuart's comic book shop. Amy wasn't in this scene, but you can spot me wearing eyeglasses and a black sweater (and sporting a shaved head) while standing directly behind those rows of comic books and the couch where Sheldon, Penny and Leonard are sitting!

This production shoot was a 2-day call where the Thor and Dr. Jones scene was pre-recorded on Day 1, and the rest of the episode was filmed in front of a live studio audience on Day 2. I worked on a Season 10 episode of The Big Bang Theory as well...but I'll blog about it on its 10-year anniversary in 2026!

You can watch Howard and Raj sing Thor and Dr. Jones in the clip below:

Trump Continues to Double Down on his Stupidity...

So earlier today, this screenshot of a Truth Social post made by Donald Trump was shared online...showing that the fascist pedophile is ready to deploy U.S. military soldiers and ICE agents to the city of Chicago.

Not only is Trump apparently resigned to the fact that he'll never win a Nobel Peace Prize—not with him invading a third American city with American troops in three months—but he's trying so, so very hard to distract folks from the other fact that he raped underage girls with his dead buddy Jeffrey Epstein.

Nice try, Trump. The only way you'll make people forget that you're a child sex predator is by employing that memory-erasing gizmo Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones used in the Men in Black movies. Since those memory-erasing gizmos (called 'neuralyzers') don't exist, just like Marjorie Taylor Greene's Jewish Space Lasers, you'll have to make do with the fact that history will always remember you as the twice-impeached, 34-time convicted felon who canoodled with foreign dictators like Kim Jong Un and now-deceased pedophiles who conducted sex-trafficking operations on a private island in the U.S. Virgin Islands.

MAGA!

The Trump Regime Just Keeps Doing Stupid Things...

So earlier today, Donald Trump signed an executive order renaming the Department of Defense back to the World War II-era Department of War. According to Fox News (yes, I'm quoting that Republican propaganda mouthpiece), the 5-time draft-dodging pedophile made the change because it sent "a message of victory, a message of strength" to the world.

Overlooking the fact that Trump showed just how weak he was when he met up with Russian dictator Vladmir Putin on U.S. soil last month to make a deal to end the Ukraine war (Trump unsurprisingly came away from the meeting empty-handed), this is just another stupid act by the convicted felon to distract the American people from his incompetence as president and his presence in the Epstein files. Also, this is another diversion from today's jobs report that announced only 22,000 jobs were added last month—with the unemployment rate in the U.S. increasing to 4.3%.

(Oh, and the U.S. now has more unemployed people than job openings for the first time since April 2021. In July, the U.S. had 7.18 million job openings, with 7.24 million unemployed individuals. Trump is bringing America back to a pandemic-era economy.)

The fact that Trump, the supposed anti-war candidate according to right-wing folks during the 2024 election season, would rebrand the Pentagon as a warmongering apparatus of the U.S. government makes it even more stupid that he tried to win a Nobel Peace Prize. Combine the Department of War with Trump illegally bombing Iran, illegally sending military troops to American cities like Los Angeles, Washington, D.C. and possibly Chicago, and murdering 11 people on a Venezuelan boat in international waters in the Caribbean (an act of war, apparently), and Trump is just showing that he wants to enhance a fraudulent political legacy in American history that he absolutely does not deserve.

And of course, you have MAGA halfwits like Pete Hegseth enabling his sex-offending boss by sharing the tweet above. According to the Fox News article mentioned at the start of this Blog entry, this is Trump's 200th executive order. In other words, the next Democratic president will have at least 200 items to overturn—via executive orders—on Inauguration Day less than four years from now.

Have a nice weekend.

UPDATE (11:15 PM, PDT): For some stupid reason the Fox News article won't open if you click on the link at the start of this Blog entry. Look up "Department of War" on Google and you'll be able to visit the article there. Screw you, Rupert Murdoch's former company.

REMINDER: The unemployment rate was at or under 4% for 30 consecutive months under President Biden.

He averaged 343,750 jobs/month while in office.

By comparison, trump added an anemic 70,833 jobs per month from January to August 2025, and unemployment rose from 4% to 4.3%.

We… pic.twitter.com/s1B5v1MYcE

— BrooklynDad_Defiant!☮️ (@mmpadellan) September 5, 2025

The Latest Discovery by a Mars Lander That Permanently Fell Silent Years Ago...

NASA / JPL - Caltech

NASA Marsquake Data Reveals Lumpy Nature of Red Planet’s Interior (News Release)

Rocky material that impacted Mars lies scattered in giant lumps throughout the planet’s mantle, offering clues about Mars’ interior and its ancient past.

What appear to be fragments from the aftermath of massive impacts on Mars that occurred 4.5 billion years ago have been detected deep below the planet’s surface. The discovery was made thanks to NASA’s now-retired InSight lander, which recorded the findings before the mission’s end in 2022. The ancient impacts released enough energy to melt continent-size swaths of the early crust and mantle into vast magma oceans, simultaneously injecting the impactor fragments and Martian debris deep into the planet’s interior.

There’s no way to tell exactly what struck Mars: The early Solar System was filled with a range of different rocky objects that could have done so, including some so large they were effectively protoplanets. The remains of these impacts still exist in the form of lumps that are as large as 2.5 miles (4 kilometers) across and scattered throughout the Martian mantle. They offer a record preserved only on worlds like Mars, whose lack of tectonic plates has kept its interior from being churned up the way Earth’s is through a process known as convection.

The finding was reported on Thursday, August 28, in a study published by the journal Science.

“We’ve never seen the inside of a planet in such fine detail and clarity before,” said the paper’s lead author, Constantinos Charalambous of Imperial College London. “What we’re seeing is a mantle studded with ancient fragments. Their survival to this day tells us Mars’ mantle has evolved sluggishly over billions of years. On Earth, features like these may well have been largely erased.”

InSight, which was managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, placed the first seismometer on Mars’ surface in 2018. The extremely-sensitive instrument recorded 1,319 marsquakes before the lander’s end of mission in 2022.

Quakes produce seismic waves that change as they pass through different kinds of material, providing scientists a way to study the interior of a planetary body. To date, the InSight team has measured the size, depth and composition of Mars’ crust, mantle and core. This latest discovery regarding the mantle’s composition suggests how much is still waiting to be discovered within InSight’s data.

“We knew Mars was a time capsule bearing records of its early formation, but we didn’t anticipate just how clearly we’d be able to see with InSight,” said Tom Pike of Imperial College London, coauthor of the paper.

Quake hunting

Mars lacks the tectonic plates that produce the temblors many people in seismically-active areas are familiar with. But there are two other types of quakes on Earth that also occur on Mars: those caused by rocks cracking under heat and pressure, and those caused by meteoroid impacts.

Of the two types, meteoroid impacts on Mars produce high-frequency seismic waves that travel from the crust deep into the planet’s mantle, according to a paper published earlier this year in Geophysical Research Letters. Located beneath the planet’s crust, the Martian mantle can be as much as 960 miles (1,550 kilometers) thick and is made of solid rock that can reach temperatures as high as 2,732° Fahrenheit (1,500° Celsius).

Scrambled signals

The new Science paper identifies eight marsquakes whose seismic waves contained strong, high-frequency energy that reached deep into the mantle, where their seismic waves were distinctly altered.

“When we first saw this in our quake data, we thought the slowdowns were happening in the Martian crust,” Pike said. “But then we noticed that the farther seismic waves travel through the mantle, the more these high-frequency signals were being delayed.”

Using planetwide computer simulations, the team saw that the slowing down and scrambling happened only when the signals passed through small, localized regions within the mantle. They also determined that these regions appear to be lumps of material with a different composition than the surrounding mantle.

With one riddle solved, the team focused on another: how those lumps got there.

Turning back the clock, they concluded that the lumps likely arrived as giant asteroids or other rocky material that struck Mars during the early Solar System, generating those oceans of magma as they drove deep into the mantle, bringing with them fragments of crust and mantle.

Charalambous likens the pattern to shattered glass — a few large shards with many smaller fragments. The pattern is consistent with a large release of energy that scattered many fragments of material throughout the mantle. It also fits well with current thinking that in the early Solar System, asteroids and other planetary bodies regularly bombarded the young planets.

On Earth, the crust and uppermost mantle is continuously recycled by plate tectonics pushing a plate’s edge into the hot interior, where, through convection, hotter, less-dense material rises and cooler, denser material sinks. Mars, by contrast, lacks tectonic plates, and its interior circulates far more sluggishly. The fact that such fine structures are still visible today, Charalambous said, “tells us Mars hasn’t undergone the vigorous churning that would have smoothed out these lumps.”

And in that way, Mars could point to what may be lurking beneath the surface of other rocky planets that lack plate tectonics, including Venus and Mercury.

Source: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

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NASA / JPL - Caltech